It is not known when the idea originated of sailing westward in order to reach Cathay. Many.... sail explor

Many sailors set forth searching for islands in the west; and it was a commonplace among scientists that the east could be reached by sailing west, but to believe this a practicable voyage was an entirely different matter. Fair winds favoured him, the sea was calm, and, on October 12, landfall was made on the Bahama island of Guanahan which he renamed San Salvador (also called Watling Island, though Samana Cay and other islands have been identified as Guanahan With the help of the local Indians, the ships reached Cuba and then Haiti. On his third voyage, in 1498, Columbus sighted Trinidad, entered the Gulf of Paria, on the coast of what is now Venezuela, and annexed for Spain a very great continent . On a fourth voyage, from 1502 to 1504, he explored the coast of Central America from Honduras to Darien on the Isthmus of Panama, seeking a navigable passage to the west. His project to sail west gained support, and with one small ship, the Matthew, he set out in May 1497, taki! ng a course due west from Dursey Head, Ireland. Little is known of John Cabot's first voyage, and almost nothing of his second, in 1498, from which he did not return, but his voyages in high latitudes represented almost as great a navigational feat as those of Columbus. In 1499 , an Italian merchant living in Sevilla (Seville), together with the Spanish explorer , explored the north coast of South America from Suriname to the Golfo de Venezuela. The land explored by Columbus on his third voyage and by Vespucci and de Ojeda in 1499 is shown at the bottom left of the map as a promontory of a great northern bulge of a continent extending far to the south. It runs: Christopher Columbus, Viceroy of Spain, sailing westwards, reached the Spanish islands after many hardships and dangers. His plan was in accord with Spanish hopes; five Spanish ships were fitted out in Sevilla, and in August 1519 they sailed under his command first to the Cape Verde Islands and thence to Brazil. Stan! ding offshore, they then sailed southward along the east coast! of South America; the estuary of the R de la Plata was explored in the vain hope that it might prove to be a strait leading to the . Magellan's ships then sailed south along the coast of Patagonia. The survivors, in two ships, sailed on to the Moluccas; thus, sailing westward, they arrived at last in territory already known to the Portuguese sailing eastward. The remaining ship, the Vittoria, laden with spices, under the command of the Spanish navigator , sailed alone across the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at Sevilla on September 9, 1522, with a crew of four Indians and only 17 survivors of the 239 Europeans who had set sail with the expedition three years earlier. sail explor

In the upper portion of the Don�that is, as far downstream as the southeastward bend�the river flows along the eastern edge.... small widen

The left bank borders a flatter floodplain, and the river itself widens intermittently into small lakes; depths range from a few feet in the shoals to 33 feet, with a maximum width of 1,300 feet. In the middle course, to the beginning of the Tsimlyansk Reservoir, the valley widens to about four miles, and its path is marked by floodplains, more small lakes, and relict channels; the banks, especially the right bank, become steeper, with chalk, limestone, and sandstone predominating. small widen

Still preserved today are actual clappers from ancient . Their use seems nev.... chime china

On the subcontinent circular wooden clappers are played by beggars and fakirs in some regions and are used as rhythm instruments in others. Cymbals are indigenous to Asia; ancient Assyria had a unique form, funnel-shaped with long necks serving as handles. In China they play a prominent part in the theatre. They vary in form from the most primitive log type to the highly developed orchestral instruments found in Indonesia. Trough xylophones were depicted in Java in the 14th century but are not restricted to Southeast Asia; those of Japan, for instance, are rhythm rather than melody instruments, and in Myanmar (Burma) they are associated with royalty. In China their generic name is ch'ing ; there, single sculpted musical stones and also 16-stone chimes are suspended from ornate frames. Stones forming a chime, carved in a typical L-form and struck with a mallet on their larger portion, are very ancient; a chime of this form dating from the late era ( c. Both in China and in Ko! rea, where the oldest chime goes back to the 14th century, the lithophone is a ritual instrument. Introduced to China by a Turkic people in the 7th century, the horizontal type of metallophone reached Korea in the 12th century and is still occasionally played there. Western Asia is believed to be the home of the , which reached China in the 6th century and Java by the 8th. The horizontal gong chimes of Indonesia (called bonang in Java) are outstanding components of Southeast Asian orchestras and have been known from the 10th or 11th century on. Ancient , products of Bronze Age culture, are found only in China, Indochina, and Indonesia. Temple bells usually assume the form of chimes in China; one from the 6th century has 13 bells, but more modern chimes consist of 16 bells hung in two rows of a frame. Jew's harps have idioglott tongues (cut from the same material as the frame) in Indonesia, while both idioglott and heteroglott (the tongue made separately and attached to the ! frame) forms occur in China and on the Indian subcontinent. chime china

Maintenance of the plumage in an effective waterproof condition occupies much of the time not spent feeding or.... head displai

Bathing movements include dipping the head, beating the wings on the surface and, at high intensity, actual diving or somersaulting through the water. Formal aggressive displays are important in gregarious species to prevent actual fighting and injury and to establish instead a stable dominance order. Wing flaps and flicking of the folded wings are common in geese. The chin may be lifted during aggressive display, but more frequently the head is thrust forward, often with the bill open. The displays are well developed and characteristic of the species, which is necessary if mating with closely related and sympatric (coexistent) species is to be avoided. It is particularly striking in the dabbling ducks (Anatini), where it is often social, a group of males displaying around a solitary female, who appears to do the mate selection. Thus head-up-tail-up involves a simultaneous upward jerk of head and tail and a lifting of the folded wings to display the speculum, a set of metall! ic coloured secondary flight feathers of the upper wing. The grunt-whistle involves throwing an arc of water at the female by a sideways flick of the bill, followed by a rearing up of the body, shaking of the head and tail, and, during the whole sequence, giving the call indicated by the behavioural term. The sea ducks (Mergini) also have elaborate male displays, bowing while producing dovelike coos; flagging the head from side to side; jerking the head back on the tail and kicking up a spurt of water (the head-throw-kick of the goldeneye, ( Bucephala clangula ). The males cock their tails over their backs, inflate their lower necks, and beat on them with their bright blue bills, producing a chittering sound that terminates in a burp. Mutual preening and drinking displays are of this category, as are precopulatory displays, often ritualized feeding movements such as mutual head dipping, bill dipping, or head pumping. The geese and swans indulge in calling with upstretched n! ecks and lifted wings. The class of object is not necessarily ! treated as the sexual partner when the duck matures, but it does appear that male dabbling ducks learn the plumage patterns of the female from the ducks with which they are reared. Some nonvocal sounds are also produced by the wings of some species, by inflatable air sacs of others. head displai

First sighted in 1615 by Richard Rowe, master of the Thomas, the island was named o.... christma island

First sighted in 1615 by Richard Rowe, master of the Thomas, the island was named on Christmas Day 1643 by Captain William Mynors of the British East India Company. In 1888 the island was annexed by Great Britain, and the first settlement was established at Flying Fish Cove by George Clunies-Ross of Cocos (Keeling) Islands. A 99-year lease, granted in 1891 to Clunies-Ross and Murray, to mine phosphate and cut timber was transferred six years later to the Christmas Island Phosphate Company, Ltd., which was largely owned by the former lessees. In 1948 the governments of New Zealand and Australia acquired the interests and assets of the Christmas Island Phosphate Company. The Christmas Island Phosphate Commission was established in 1949 to carry out mining and shipping operations on behalf of both governments. Most of the island's residents traditionally have been employees of the Phosphate Mining Company of Christmas Island, Ltd., which is owned by the Australian government. T! he Australian governor-general appoints an administrator of Christmas Island. Almost all of the island's residents are Australian citizens or residents under the statutes of the Christmas Island Act and the Citizenship Act. christma island

In North America east of the Rockies, there are 11 species, ty.... n. snake

The common European water, or grass, snake ( N. It is dark green to black, usually with small black dorsal spots, short bars on the sides, and a white, yellow, or orange mark on each side of the head or across the nape. The checkered water snake ( N. The tiger grass snake ( N. APA style: water snake. n. snake

The ( Tarpon atlanticus, alternate name Megalops atla.... "tarpon." style:

The ( Tarpon atlanticus, alternate name Megalops atlanticus ) is found inshore in warm parts of the Atlantic, on the Pacific side of Central America, and sometimes in rivers. MLA style: "tarpon." style: "tarpon." "tarpon." style:

The oldest system of relies on the chemical action of vegetable material contain.... tan acid

Vegetable tanning seems to have been practiced in prehistoric times. In historic times, the Hebrews tanned with oak bark, and the Egyptians, with babul pods. Tanning with salts, introduced at the end of the 19th century, was probably the first change in the chemistry of leather production in at least 2,000 years. In the double-bath method the hides are first bathed in a mild chromic acid solution. In the second bath, sodium thiosulfate and another acid react with the chromic acid to produce basic chromium salts, which are deposited on the fibres of the skins. Oil tanning is an ancient method that is used for such soft, porous leathers as chamois and deerskin, which can be repeatedly wetted and dried without detrimental effects. tan acid

public aquarium in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, noted for .... speci fish

Besides having about 5,000 specimens of some 350 species of fish, the aquarium maintains a collection of more than 200 kinds of reptiles and amphibians, along with 3 species of marine mammals and 60 species of marine invertebrates. One innovation is the Fish Roundabout, an enormous circular glass tank that holds open-sea fish species. speci fish

In the West lighter soups are usually served as a first course, while thic.... soup fish,

In the West lighter soups are usually served as a first course, while thicker, heartier soups constitute the entr for informal meals. In a thin soup is consumed throughout the meal as a beverage, and elaborate soups such as the celebrated bird's nest and shark's fin may be interspersed with other courses or served near the end of the meal. The basis of many soups is , or broth, a rich liquid obtained by boiling fish, meat, poultry, game, or vegetables. Thick soups may achieve their texture by means of a flour- or egg-thickened sauce or a puree of vegetables with or without butter or cream. Bisques and are creamy soups usually made with shellfish or fish, sometimes with meat or vegetables, and cream or milk. soup fish,

also called blueback salmon , or red salmon North Pacific .... salmon upriv

also called blueback salmon , or red salmon North Pacific food fish of the family Salmonidae that weighs about 3 kg (6.6 pounds) and lacks distinct spots on the body. The sockeye can migrate more than 1,600 km (1,000 miles) upriver to spawn in lakes or tributary streams, the young remaining in fresh water for as long as three years. salmon upriv

Unlike the true, or earless, seals (family Phocidae), sea lions and other eared seals (family Otari.... metr sea

Unlike the true, or earless, seals (family Phocidae), sea lions and other eared seals (family Otariidae) are able to rotate their hind flippers forward to use all four limbs when moving about on land. The California sea lion, found along the coasts of California (including , Mexico), the , and Japan, is the trained seal commonly seen in animal acts and zoos. The male reaches a maximum length of about 2.5 metres (8 feet) and a weight of 400 kg (880 pounds); the female grows to about 1.8 metres and 90 kg. The , or Steller, sea lion ( Eumetopias jubatus ) is a pale- to golden-brown sea lion of the Bering Sea and both sides of the North Pacific Ocean. Males are about 3.3 metres in length and weigh 1,000 kg; females measure about 2.5 metres and weigh less than 300 kg. The male is about 2.5 metres in length and weighs 200350 kg; the female is about 1.8 metres long and 140 kg. South American sea lions eat mostly fish, squid, and crustaceans but occasionally kill and eat other seals! . Adult males are 2.02.5 metres in length and weigh 300 kg, whereas females measure 1.5 metres long and weigh less than 100 kg. metr sea

Preservatives are of various types that are suited to ce.... preserv product

Preservatives are of various types that are suited to certain products and are effective against specific chemical changes. Humectants, substances that absorb moisture, help to retain the moisture content in such products as shredded coconut. In addition to retarding spoilage, some preservatives have an aesthetic rolethat is, they improve the appearance of the product. Nitrate and nitrite are used in the curing of meats to prevent the development of botulism-causing bacteria; they also impart the reddish colour characteristic of ham, bacon, and luncheon meats. Preservatives used to maintain moisture and softness in baked goods are known as antistaling agents ( e.g., glyceryl monostearate). preserv product

Camouflaged against ice and snow by its whitish fur, the polar bear is a swift and wide-ranging traveler. It swims very well.... polar feet

Camouflaged against ice and snow by its whitish fur, the polar bear is a swift and wide-ranging traveler. The male polar bear, which is usually larger than the female, ranges in weight from about 410 to 720 kg (about 900 to 1,600 pounds). The hairy soles of the polar bear's broad feet protect and insulate it from the cold and also facilitate movement across the ice. APA style: polar bear. polar feet

Many folktales record marriages between mermaids (who might assume human form) and men. In most, the man steals the.... mermaid sometim

Many folktales record marriages between mermaids (who might assume human form) and men. Though sometimes kindly, mermaids and mermen were usually dangerous to man. They sometimes lured mortals to death by drowning, as did the Lorelei of the Rhine, or enticed young people to live with them underwater, as did the mermaid whose image is carved on a bench in the church of Zennor, Cornwall, Eng. APA style: mermaid. mermaid sometim

A principal aim of marine biology is to discover how ocean phenomena control the distribution of organisms. Marine biol.... marin century,

A principal aim of marine biology is to discover how ocean phenomena control the distribution of organisms. Marine biologists study the way in which particular organisms are adapted to the various chemical and physical properties of the seawater, to the movements and currents of the ocean, to the availability of light at various depths, and to the solid surfaces that make up the seafloor. During the second half of the 19th century, when the emphasis was on the collection, description, and cataloging of marine organisms, methods evolved for the capture and preservation of specimens for study. Late in the 19th century, the focus began to shift from collecting and cataloging to the systematic analysis of marine ecosystems and the ecological roles and behaviour of marine life. This research combined studies of marine flora and fauna, ocean currents, water temperature, salinity, and oxygen levels, and other factors in an effort to understand the relationship between marine animal! s and their environment. marin century,

Evidence suggests that most humans with listeriosis may be infected by soil-contaminated fo.... anim system

The disease normally develops in persons whose immune systems are weak or impaired, such as newborn infants, pregnant women, the elderly, and those whose immune systems have been compromised by an underlying disease or by immunosuppressive drugs. Intrauterine infection of the fetus may result in miscarriage, premature birth, or stillbirth; if the infant is born alive, it may develop septicemia or meningitis. Sheep, cattle, goats, horses, pigs, and other domesticated animals are susceptible to the infection, which may result in encephalitis, septicemia, and spontaneous abortion. In animals listeriosis is also known as circling disease, because some infected animals walk in circles. anim system

The frigate bird is perhaps the most aerial of all .... frigat bird

The frigate bird is perhaps the most aerial of all birds except the swift and alights only to sleep or to tend its nest. Found throughout the world along tropical and semitropical coasts and islands, the frigate bird usually keeps within 100 miles (160 km) of land, to which it must return to roost. The largest species (to about 115 cm [45 inches]) is the magnificent frigate bird, Fregata magnificens, found on both coasts of America, the Caribbean Sea, and Cape Verde. APA style: frigate bird. frigat bird

The deep interior of the Earth remains a major frontier, since mos.... ocean explor

The deep interior of the Earth remains a major frontier, since most of the subsurface exploration so far undertaken has been limited to the Earth's uppermost crust. The methods used in exploring the Earth's subsurface (as well as its surface in many cases) are of two general types: direct and indirect. techniques are commonly employed to measure trace contents of certain elements in rock, water, vegetation, and other surface materials that may indicate the presence of a buried body of ore in a given area. and other techniques of direct exploration are of somewhat less significance in the scientific study of the deep Earth, because of high cost and the limited depth attainable. As a consequence, scientific investigators have to rely heavily on measurements, particularly of seismic waves associated with earthquakes, to secure information about the Earth's interior and its dynamic processes. Scientific investigation of the ocean, which includes the study of the physical and che! mical properties of seawater, all forms of marine life, and the geologic and geophysical features of the ocean floor, has also proved beneficial. Exploration of the oceanic depths also has resulted in the discovery of previously unknown forms of marine life and made it possible to determine the distribution of diverse fish populations. Scientific study of the ocean involves the collection of data on ocean currents (surface and bottom), seawater temperature and salinity, marine life, and the topography of the ocean floor. Remote sensing has become an increasingly important means of exploring the ocean because it can provide a sweeping view of the ocean. ocean explor

A flying fish does not fly, in the sense of flapping its wing-sized fins, but actually glide.... fish tail

A flying fish does not fly, in the sense of flapping its wing-sized fins, but actually glides. Upon breaking the surface, the fish spreads its enlarged fins and gains additional thrust from rapid beats of the still-submerged tail. When sufficient speed has been attained, the tail is lifted clear of the water and the fish is airborne, gliding a few feet above the surface at a speed of about 16 km/h (10 miles per hour). The fish can make several consecutive glides, the tail propelling it up again each time it sinks back to the surface.stripslashes( A flying fish does not fly, in the sense of flapping its wing-sized fins, but actually glide.... fish tail)

Today, fishing, often called sport fishing to distinguish it from commercial fishing, is, despite the g.... reel line

Today, fishing, often called sport fishing to distinguish it from commercial fishing, is, despite the growth of towns and the increase of pollution in many sources, one of man's principal relaxations and in is many countries the most popular participant sport. When a fish swallowed the gorge, a pull on the line wedged it across the gullet of the fish, which could then be pulled in. The practice of attaching the line in turn to a rod, at first probably a stick or tree branch, made it possible to fish from the bank or shore and even to reach over vegetation bordering the water. About this time some unknown angler attached a wire loop or ring at the tip end of the rod, which allowed a running line, useful for both casting and playing a hooked fish. By 1770 a rod with guides for the line along its length and a reel was in common use. The first true reel was a geared multiplying reel attached under the rod, in which one turn of the handle moved the spool through several revolutio! ns. Never popular in Great Britain, such reels became the prototype of the bait-casting reel as devised by two Kentucky watchmakers in the early 1800s. It was a wide-drum, ungeared, very free-running reel, ideal for allowing line and bait or lure to float downstream with the current and suitable for casting lures for predatory fish in various kinds of sea fishing. The average angler could cast three times farther with these lines, and such methods as dry-fly and wet-fly fishing became possible. During casting, the reel was turned 90, bringing it in line with rod guides, so that the line slipped easily off the end of the spool. The reel was used mainly for casting heavy lures for salmon fishing, but it influenced the reel invented by the English textile magnate Holden Illingworth, which the British called a fixed-spool reel and the Americans a spinning reel. In this kind of reel, the spool permanently faces up the rod and the line peels off in the cast as with the Malloch re! el.

To be processed into meal, chopped fish is forced by screw conveyor through long steam cookers. The cooked mash is then pres.... style: fish

The pressed fish cakes are dried by hot air, yielding a meal that is high in vitamin B and contains as much as 50 percent protein. MLA style: "fish meal." APA style: fish meal.

The deep interior of the Earth remains a major frontier, since most of the subsurfac.... ocean explor

The deep interior of the Earth remains a major frontier, since most of the subsurface exploration so far undertaken has been limited to the Earth's uppermost crust. The methods used in exploring the Earth's subsurface (as well as its surface in many cases) are of two general types: direct and indirect. Indirect methods involve geochemical analysis and measurement and geophysical surveys of such phenomena as reflectivity, gravity, magnetism, seismic waves, and heat flow. and other techniques of direct exploration are of somewhat less significance in the scientific study of the deep Earth, because of high cost and the limited depth attainable. As a consequence, scientific investigators have to rely heavily on measurements, particularly of seismic waves associated with earthquakes, to secure information about the Earth's interior and its dynamic processes. Scientific investigation of the ocean, which includes the study of the physical and chemical properties of seawater, all fo! rms of marine life, and the geologic and geophysical features of the ocean floor, has also proved beneficial. Exploration of the oceanic depths also has resulted in the discovery of previously unknown forms of marine life and made it possible to determine the distribution of diverse fish populations. Scientific study of the ocean involves the collection of data on ocean currents (surface and bottom), seawater temperature and salinity, marine life, and the topography of the ocean floor. Remote sensing has become an increasingly important means of exploring the ocean because it can provide a sweeping view of the ocean.

The presence of five pairs of thoracic legs (pereiopods) is the basis for .... decapod bodi

The presence of five pairs of thoracic legs (pereiopods) is the basis for the name decapod. The macrurous (shrimplike) species, which can be as small as 1 cm (0.5 inch), have elongated bodies with long abdomens, well-developed fan tails, and often long, slender legs. The brachyurous (crablike) types, which in the case of spider crabs can have spans of almost 4 m (12 feet) between their outstretched claws, have bodies that are flattened and laterally expanded, frequently with stout, short legs and reduced tail fans. Those decapods that have colonized terrestrial environments, such as some species of and , have evolved mechanisms to protect against desiccation and overheating while regulating the internal concentrations of their body fluids. Vascularization of the gill surfaces has made respiration possible on land for some species of decapods. Terrestrial decapods must usually return to the sea to spawn, while most freshwater decapods spend their entire life cycle in fresh wa! ter, commonly hatching their young as miniature adults. Decapods exist in a variety of relationships with other organisms. The two basic types of locomotion are swimming and crawling, though the macruran decapods are able to move swiftly backward by flexing their abdomens. In most decapods the eggs are carried cemented to the abdominal appendages until they are hatched. Decapods have three distinct body regions, each made up of segments, or somites: the head, thorax, and abdomen.

Geologically, Death Valley forms part of the southwestern portion of the Great Basin. It is similar to other structural b.... vallei form

Portions of the great salt pan that forms part of the floor of the valley are the lowest land areas of the Americas. For a short time after its christening in 1849 by a hapless party of emigrants who endured intense suffering while crossing it, Death Valley was little known except to Native Americans (primarily ) of the area and to prospectors searching the surrounding mountains. Essentially, Death Valley is a graben, or rift valley, formed by the sinking of a tremendous expanse of rock lying between parallel uplifted, tilted-block mountain ranges to the east and west. As crustal blocks sank, they formed the great trough of the valley, and other blocks were uplifted to gradually form the adjacent mountain ranges. As the valley sank, it was filled by sediments that were eroded from the surrounding hills; in the central part of the valley the bedrock floor is buried beneath as much as 9,000 feet (2,745 metres) of sediment. The floor of Death Valley is noted for its extremes of! temperature and aridity. Most rainfall is blocked by the mountains to the west, so the valley is extremely arid.

Japanese Biwa-ko largest freshwater lake in Japan, located in Shiga ken (prefecture), .... metres) feet

Deepest water of 338 feet (103 metres) is in the northwest corner, with depths of more than 200 feet (60 metres) common along the west coast. The lake's surface rises as high as 10 feet (3 metres) in spring because of melting snow and spring rains and in autumn because of typhoon rains.

The first European visitor to explore the bay was , an English sea captain, in.... baffin ic

The climate is severe, especially in winter, when northeast winds blow off Baffin Island (in the south) and in the bay's northern sector. January temperatures average -4 F (-20 C) in the south and -18 F (-28 C) farther north, but the warm, dry foehn winds that sweep down from the valleys containing Greenland's glaciers sometimes cause winter thaws. are dense even in August; the ice cover is formed from Arctic pack ice entering through the northern sounds, from local sea ice, and from icebergs that have broken off adjacent glaciers. By late October, ice fields reach (between Baffin Island and the Quebec mainland), a region where coastal ice has already been thickening, mostly near Greenland, where prevailing easterly winds make for sheltered conditions. The centre of Baffin Bay is covered with compounded ice in winter, but in the north there is actually a permanent ice-free area (the northern water) that may be related to the warming effect of the West Greenland Current. The ! salinity of Arctic waters flowing into Baffin Bay ranges from 30.0 to 32.7 parts per thousand, and their temperature warms up to 41 F (5 C) on the surface in summer, cooling in winter to 29 F (-2 C). Near Baffin Island and the shores of Greenland the tidal range is about 13 feet (4 m), reaching as much as 30 feet (9 m) where the water is forced through narrow passages. The dissolution of salts in the water and the warming effect of southerly currents make Baffin Bay a haven for myriad life-forms. Among the fish found in Baffin Bay are the Arctic flounder, four-horned sculpin (a spiny, large-headed, broad-mouthed fish), polar cod, and capelin (a small fish of the smelt family).

eight auspicious symbols frequently represented on Jaina ritual obj....

Although there are various traditions, the eight symbols are usually considered to be (1) darpa?a (mirror), (2) bhadrasana (throne), (3) vardhamanaka (powder vase), (4) kalasa (full water vessel), (5) matsyayugma (pair of fish), (6) srivatsa symbol, (7) nandyavarta (an elaborated swastika), and (8) swastika.

The Andaman Sea is 750 miles (1,200 km) long from north to south and 400 miles (6....

The sea's northern and eastern third is less than 600 feet (180 metres) deep, in part because vast quantities of silt have been deposited by the Irrawaddy River at its delta. Huge volumes of runoff water from Myanmar flow into the Andaman Sea during the summer monsoon, however, forming a marked pattern of low surface salinity in its northern third. Trading vessels have plied the Andaman Sea since ancient times. In 2004 a severe earthquake (magnitude 9.0) off the west coast of Sumatra triggered a large that inundated coastal areas throughout the Andaman Sea region. APA style: Andaman Sea.

The process that results in the formation of acid rain generally begins with emissions into the atmosphere of ....

The process that results in the formation of acid rain generally begins with emissions into the atmosphere of and oxide. These gases are released by automobiles, certain industrial operations (e.g., smelting and refining), and electric power plants that burn fossil fuels such as coal and oil. The gases combine with water vapour in clouds to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When precipitation falls from the clouds, it is highly acidic, having a value of about 5.6 or lower. (The term pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in kilograms per cubic metre. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with lower numbers indicating increased acidity.) At several locations in the eastern United States and western Europe, pH values between 2 and 3 have been recorded. In areas such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Whiteface Mountain in New York, is often 10 or more times as acidic as the local . Precipitation and fog of high acidity contaminate lakes and stream! s; they are particularly harmful to fish and other aquatic life in regions with thin soil and granitic rock, which provide little buffering to acidic inputs. It also has been discovered that aluminum is leached from the soil in regions subjected to such acid precipitation, and that dissolved aluminum seems to be extremely toxic to aquatic organisms. All forms of acid precipitation have been found to damage various kinds of vegetation, including agricultural crops and trees, chiefly by inhibiting nitrogen fixation and leaching nutrients from foliage. In addition, these pollutants can corrode the external surfaces of buildings and other man-made structures; marble structures and statues are especially vulnerable to their damaging effects. The problem of acid rain has been mainly dealt with in two ways. Adherents to the �cost-sharing� principle believe acid rain is a regional problem that should be dealt with collectively by all countries affected by the problem. Supporters of! the �polluter pays� approach highlight the actions and respon! sibility of the polluter, which they believe should pay for the damages caused by its habits and institutions. MLA style: "acid rain." . . Chicago: , . APA style: acid rain. ). . 2007 . Chicago: . style: "acid rain." from 2007 . ).

The abyssal realm is the largest environment for Earth life, co....

The abyssal realm is the largest environment for Earth life, covering 300,000,000 square km (115,000,000 square miles), about 60 percent of the global surface and 83 percent of the area of oceans and seas. Abyssal waters originate at the air-sea interface in polar regions, principally the Antarctic. There, the cold climate produces sea ice and residual cold brine. Because of its high density, the brine sinks and slowly flows along the bottom toward the Equator. Abyssal salinities range narrowly between 34.6 and 35.0 parts per thousand, and temperatures are mostly between 0� and 4� C (32� and 39� F). Pressure increases by about one atmosphere (approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch at sea level) with each 10-metre increment in depth; thus, abyssal pressures range between 200 and 600 atmospheres. Pressure presents few problems for abyssal animals, however, because the pressures within their bodies are the same as those outside them. The concentrations of nutrient salts of ! nitrogen, phosphorus, and silica are very uniform in abyssal waters and are much higher than in overlying waters. This is because abyssal and hadal waters are the reservoir for the salts from decomposed biological materials that settle downward from upper zones, and the lack of sunlight prevents their uptake by photosynthesis. The oxygen content of abyssal water depends entirely upon the amounts dissolved into it at its polar site of origin and the absence of photosynthesis, which precludes the introduction of new oxygen at depth. Abyssal waters retain several cubic centimetres of dissolved oxygen per litre, because the sparse animal populations do not consume oxygen faster than it is introduced into the abyssal zone. Abyssal life is concentrated at the seafloor, however, and the water nearest the floor may be essentially depleted in oxygen. The abyssal realm is very calm, being far removed from storms that agitate the ocean at the air-sea interface. These low energies are ! reflected in the character of abyssal sediments. The abyssal r! ealm is usually far enough from land that the sediment is composed predominantly of microscopic plankton remains produced in the food chain in the overlying waters, from which they settle. Abyssal sediment in waters shallower than 4,000 m in equatorial to temperate regions is composed primarily of the calcareous shells of foraminiferan zooplankton and of phytoplankton such as coccolithophores. Below 4,000 m, calcium carbonate tends to dissolve, and the principal sediment constituents are brown clays and the siliceous remains of radiolarian zooplankton and such phytoplankton as diatoms. Abyssal fauna, though very sparse and embracing relatively few species, include representatives of all major marine invertebrate phyla and several kinds of fish, all adapted to an environment marked by no diurnal or seasonal changes, high pressures, darkness, calm water, and soft sediment bottoms. These animals tend to be gray or black, delicately structured, and unstreamlined. Mobile forms h! ave long legs; and animals attached to the bottom have stalks, enabling them to rise above the water layer nearest the bottom, where oxygen is scarce. Abyssal crustaceans and fish may be blind. With increasing depth, carnivores and scavengers become less abundant than animals that feed on mud and suspended matter. Abyssal animals are believed to reproduce very slowly. MLA style: "abyssal zone." . . Chicago: , . APA style: abyssal zone. ). . 2007 . Chicago: . style: "abyssal zone." from 2007 . ).

The university was established in 1889. It is noted for awarding advanced degrees in fields such as water resources, environ....

The university was established in 1889. It is noted for awarding advanced degrees in fields such as water resources, environmental policy and resource management, and fish, game, and wildlife management. The university is home to the Idaho Water Resources Research Institute, the Idaho Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, the Glaciological and Arctic Sciences Institute, the Aquaculture Research Institute, and the National Institute for Advanced Transportation Technology. The university also manages more than 7,000 acres (2,800 hectares) of experimental forest. MLA style: "Idaho, University of." . . Chicago: , . APA style: Idaho, University of. ). . 2007 . Chicago: . style: "Idaho, University of." from 2007 . ).